From 1ab125de63627855752d28abf847b3cc0bdf8582 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: realmadsci <71108352+realmadsci@users.noreply.github.com> Date: Mon, 15 Mar 2021 14:18:41 -0400 Subject: afl-cmin: Allow @@ to be part of an arg The previous implementation of "@@ handling" in afl-cmin differed greatly from how it was handled in afl-fuzz and how the documentation presented it. It used to require that the @@ be its own argument separated by whitespace and could not be used in situations like "--file=@@". This change standardizes it to just look for @@ to be *in* an argument in the same manner that afl-cmin.bash does, so that it will have the expected and documented behavior. --- afl-cmin | 2 +- 1 file changed, 1 insertion(+), 1 deletion(-) (limited to 'afl-cmin') diff --git a/afl-cmin b/afl-cmin index 778d7487..a1fc6f21 100755 --- a/afl-cmin +++ b/afl-cmin @@ -243,7 +243,7 @@ BEGIN { if (!stdin_file) { found_atat = 0 for (prog_args_ind in prog_args) { - if ("@@" == prog_args[prog_args_ind]) { + if (match(prog_args[prog_args_ind], "@@") != 0) { found_atat = 1 break } -- cgit 1.4.1 From 1725e6be316b57e89df2a077710b66b684b55242 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Your Name Date: Thu, 25 Mar 2021 17:41:14 +0000 Subject: Fix support for afl-cmin and updated README --- afl-cmin | 11 +++- afl-cmin.bash | 9 +++- frida_mode/Makefile | 40 ++++++++++++++ frida_mode/README.md | 145 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++++----------- src/afl-analyze.c | 2 - src/afl-fuzz.c | 2 - src/afl-showmap.c | 3 -- src/afl-tmin.c | 2 - 8 files changed, 172 insertions(+), 42 deletions(-) (limited to 'afl-cmin') diff --git a/afl-cmin b/afl-cmin index a1fc6f21..3f3a7517 100755 --- a/afl-cmin +++ b/afl-cmin @@ -106,6 +106,7 @@ function usage() { " -f file - location read by the fuzzed program (stdin)\n" \ " -m megs - memory limit for child process ("mem_limit" MB)\n" \ " -t msec - run time limit for child process (none)\n" \ +" -O - use binary-only instrumentation (FRIDA mode)\n" \ " -Q - use binary-only instrumentation (QEMU mode)\n" \ " -U - use unicorn-based instrumentation (unicorn mode)\n" \ "\n" \ @@ -140,7 +141,7 @@ BEGIN { # process options Opterr = 1 # default is to diagnose Optind = 1 # skip ARGV[0] - while ((_go_c = getopt(ARGC, ARGV, "hi:o:f:m:t:eCQU?")) != -1) { + while ((_go_c = getopt(ARGC, ARGV, "hi:o:f:m:t:eCOQU?")) != -1) { if (_go_c == "i") { if (!Optarg) usage() if (in_dir) { print "Option "_go_c" is only allowed once" > "/dev/stderr"} @@ -180,6 +181,12 @@ BEGIN { extra_par = extra_par " -e" continue } else + if (_go_c == "O") { + if (frida_mode) { print "Option "_go_c" is only allowed once" > "/dev/stderr"} + extra_par = extra_par " -O" + frida_mode = 1 + continue + } else if (_go_c == "Q") { if (qemu_mode) { print "Option "_go_c" is only allowed once" > "/dev/stderr"} extra_par = extra_par " -Q" @@ -275,7 +282,7 @@ BEGIN { target_bin = tnew } - if (!ENVIRON["AFL_SKIP_BIN_CHECK"] && !qemu_mode && !unicorn_mode) { + if (!ENVIRON["AFL_SKIP_BIN_CHECK"] && !qemu_mode && !frida_mode && !unicorn_mode) { if (0 != system( "grep -q __AFL_SHM_ID "target_bin )) { print "[-] Error: binary '"target_bin"' doesn't appear to be instrumented." > "/dev/stderr" exit 1 diff --git a/afl-cmin.bash b/afl-cmin.bash index 5b2c3894..f4bd269d 100755 --- a/afl-cmin.bash +++ b/afl-cmin.bash @@ -53,7 +53,7 @@ unset IN_DIR OUT_DIR STDIN_FILE EXTRA_PAR MEM_LIMIT_GIVEN \ export AFL_QUIET=1 -while getopts "+i:o:f:m:t:eQUCh" opt; do +while getopts "+i:o:f:m:t:eOQUCh" opt; do case "$opt" in @@ -83,6 +83,10 @@ while getopts "+i:o:f:m:t:eQUCh" opt; do "C") export AFL_CMIN_CRASHES_ONLY=1 ;; + "O") + EXTRA_PAR="$EXTRA_PAR -O" + FRIDA_MODE=1 + ;; "Q") EXTRA_PAR="$EXTRA_PAR -Q" QEMU_MODE=1 @@ -118,6 +122,7 @@ Execution control settings: -f file - location read by the fuzzed program (stdin) -m megs - memory limit for child process ($MEM_LIMIT MB) -t msec - run time limit for child process (none) + -O - use binary-only instrumentation (FRIDA mode) -Q - use binary-only instrumentation (QEMU mode) -U - use unicorn-based instrumentation (Unicorn mode) @@ -209,7 +214,7 @@ if [ ! -f "$TARGET_BIN" -o ! -x "$TARGET_BIN" ]; then fi -if [ "$AFL_SKIP_BIN_CHECK" = "" -a "$QEMU_MODE" = "" -a "$UNICORN_MODE" = "" ]; then +if [ "$AFL_SKIP_BIN_CHECK" = "" -a "$QEMU_MODE" = "" -a "$FRIDA_MODE" = "" -a "$UNICORN_MODE" = "" ]; then if ! grep -qF "__AFL_SHM_ID" "$TARGET_BIN"; then echo "[-] Error: binary '$TARGET_BIN' doesn't appear to be instrumented." 1>&2 diff --git a/frida_mode/Makefile b/frida_mode/Makefile index 73a4142c..efae5ebf 100644 --- a/frida_mode/Makefile +++ b/frida_mode/Makefile @@ -306,5 +306,45 @@ analyze_frida: $(TEST_BIN) ./afl-analyze \ -O \ -i $(TEST_DATA_DIR)basn0g01.png \ + -- \ + $(TEST_BIN) @@ + +cmin_qemu: $(TEST_BIN) + make -C .. + cd .. && \ + ./afl-cmin \ + -Q \ + -i $(TEST_DATA_DIR) \ + -o $(QEMU_OUT) \ + -- \ + $(TEST_BIN) @@ + +cmin_frida: $(TEST_BIN) + make -C .. + cd .. && \ + ./afl-cmin \ + -O \ + -i $(TEST_DATA_DIR) \ + -o $(FRIDA_OUT) \ + -- \ + $(TEST_BIN) @@ + +cmin_bash_qemu: $(TEST_BIN) + make -C .. + cd .. && \ + ./afl-cmin.bash \ + -Q \ + -i $(TEST_DATA_DIR) \ + -o $(QEMU_OUT) \ + -- \ + $(TEST_BIN) @@ + +cmin_bash_frida: $(TEST_BIN) + make -C .. + cd .. && \ + ./afl-cmin.bash \ + -O \ + -i $(TEST_DATA_DIR) \ + -o $(FRIDA_OUT) \ -- \ $(TEST_BIN) @@ \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/frida_mode/README.md b/frida_mode/README.md index c5436e8b..bc260e3e 100644 --- a/frida_mode/README.md +++ b/frida_mode/README.md @@ -3,46 +3,133 @@ The purpose of FRIDA mode is to provide an alternative binary only fuzzer for AF just like that provided by QEMU mode. The intention is to provide a very similar user experience, right down to the options provided through environment variables. -Additionally, the intention is to be able to make a direct performance comparison -between the two approaches. Hopefully, we should also be able to leverage the same -approaches for adding features which QEMU uses, possibly even sharing code. +Whilst AFLplusplus already has some support for running on FRIDA [here](https://github.com/AFLplusplus/AFLplusplus/tree/stable/utils/afl_frida) +this requires the code to be fuzzed to be provided as a shared library, it +cannot be used to fuzz executables. Additionally, it requires the user to write +a small harness around their target code of interest, FRIDA mode instead takes a +different approach to avoid these limitations. -## Limitations -The current focus is on x64 support for Intel. Although parts may be architecturally -dependent, the approach itself should remain architecture agnostic. +# Current Progress +As FRIDA mode is new, it is missing a lot of features. Most importantly, +persistent mode. The design is such that it should be possible to add these +features in a similar manner to QEMU mode and perhaps leverage some of its +design and implementation. -## Usage -FRIDA mode requires some small modifications to the afl-fuzz and similar tools in -AFLplusplus. The intention is that it behaves identically to QEMU, but uses the 'O' -switch rather than 'Q'. + | Feature/Instrumentation | frida-mode | + | -------------------------|:----------:| + | NeverZero | | + | Persistent Mode | | + | LAF-Intel / CompCov | | + | CmpLog | | + | Selective Instrumentation| x | + | Non-Colliding Coverage | | + | Ngram prev_loc Coverage | | + | Context Coverage | | + | Auto Dictionary | | + | Snapshot LKM Support | | -## Design -AFL Frida works by means of a shared library injected into a binary program using -LD_PRELOAD, similar to the way which other fuzzing features are injected into targets. +# Compatibility +Currently FRIDA mode supports Linux and macOS targets on both x86/x64 +architecture and aarch64. Later releases may add support for aarch32 and Windows +targets as well as embedded linux environments. -## Testing -Alongside the FRIDA mode, we also include a test program for fuzzing. This test -program is built using the libpng benchmark from fuzz-bench and integrating the -StandaloneFuzzTargetMain from the llvm project. This is built and linked without -any special modifications to suit FRIDA or QEMU. However, at present we don't have -a representative corpus. +FRIDA has been used on various embedded targets using both uClibc and musl C +runtime libraries, so porting should be possible. However, the current build +system does not support cross compilation. ## Getting Started To build everything run `make`. -To run the benchmark sample with qemu run `make test_qemu`. -To run the benchmark sample with frida run `make test_frida`. +To run the benchmark sample with qemu run `make png_qemu`. +To run the benchmark sample with frida run `make png_frida`. + +## Usage +FRIDA mode requires some small modifications to the afl-fuzz and similar tools +in AFLplusplus. The intention is that it behaves identically to QEMU, but uses +the 'O' switch rather than 'Q'. Whilst the options 'f', 'F', 's' or 'S' may have +made more sense for a mode powered by FRIDA Stalker, they were all taken, so +instead we use 'O' in homage to the [author](https://github.com/oleavr) of +FRIDA. + +Similarly, the intention is to mimic the use of environment variables used by +QEMU where possible (although replacing `s/QEMU/FRIDA/g`). Accodingly, the +following options are currently supported. -# Configuration options * `AFL_FRIDA_DEBUG_MAPS` - See `AFL_QEMU_DEBUG_MAPS` * `AFL_FRIDA_EXCLUDE_RANGES` - See `AFL_QEMU_EXCLUDE_RANGES` -* `AFL_FRIDA_INST_NO_OPTIMIZE` - Don't use optimized inline assembly coverage instrumentation (the default where available). Required to use `AFL_FRIDA_INST_TRACE`. -* `AFL_FRIDA_INST_NO_PREFETCH` - Disable prefetching. By default the child will report instrumented blocks back to the parent so that it can also instrument them and they be inherited by the next child on fork. * `AFL_FRIDA_INST_RANGES` - See `AFL_QEMU_INST_RANGES` -* `AFL_FRIDA_INST_STRICT` - Under certain conditions, Stalker may encroach into excluded regions and generate both instrumented blocks and coverage data (e.g. indirect calls on x86). The excluded block is generally honoured as soon as another function is called within the excluded region. The overhead of generating, running and instrumenting these few additional blocks is likely to be fairly small, but it may hinder you when checking that the correct number of paths are found for testing purposes or similar. There is a performance penatly for this option during block compilation where we check the block isn't in a list of excluded ranges. -* `AFL_FRIDA_INST_TRACE` - Generate some logging when running instrumented code. Requires `AFL_FRIDA_INST_NO_OPTIMIZE`. + +# Performance + +Additionally, the intention is to be able to make a direct performance +comparison between the two approaches. Accordingly, FRIDA mode includes a test +target based on the [libpng](https://libpng.sourceforge.io/) benchmark used by +[fuzzbench](https://google.github.io/fuzzbench/) and integrated with the +[StandaloneFuzzTargetMain](https://raw.githubusercontent.com/llvm/llvm-project/main/compiler-rt/lib/fuzzer/standalone/StandaloneFuzzTargetMain.c) +from the llvm project. This is built and linked without any special +modifications to suit FRIDA or QEMU. We use the test data provided with libpng +as our corpus. + +Whilst not much performance tuning has been completed to date, performance is +around 30-50% of that of QEMU mode, however, this gap may reduce with the +introduction of persistent mode. Performance can be tested by running +`make compare`, albeit a longer time measurement may be required for move +accurate results. + +Whilst [afl_frida](https://github.com/AFLplusplus/AFLplusplus/tree/stable/utils/afl_frida) +claims a 5-10x performance increase over QEMU, it has not been possible to +reproduce these claims. However, the number of executions per second can vary +dramatically as a result of the randomization of the fuzzer input. Some inputs +may traverse relatively few paths before being rejected as invalid whilst others +may be valid inputs or be subject to much more processing before rejection. +Accordingly, it is recommended that testing be carried out over prolongued +periods to gather timings which are more than indicative. + +# Design +FRIDA mode is supported by using `LD_PRELOAD` (`DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES` on macOS) +to inject a shared library (`afl-frida-trace.so`) into the target. This shared +library is built using the [frida-gum](https://github.com/frida/frida-gum) +devkit from the [FRIDA](https://github.com/frida/frida) project. One of the +components of frida-gum is [Stalker](https://medium.com/@oleavr/anatomy-of-a-code-tracer-b081aadb0df8), +this allows the dynamic instrumentation of running code for AARCH32, AARCH64, +x86 and x64 architectutes. Implementation details can be found +[here](https://frida.re/docs/stalker/). + +Dynamic instrumentation is used to augment the target application with similar +coverage information to that inserted by `afl-gcc` or `afl-clang`. The shared +library is also linked to the `compiler-rt` component of AFLplusplus to feedback +this coverage information to AFL and also provide a fork server. It also makes +use of the FRIDA [prefetch](https://github.com/frida/frida-gum/blob/56dd9ba3ee9a5511b4b0c629394bf122775f1ab7/gum/gumstalker.h#L115) +support to feedback instrumented blocks from the child to the parent using a +shared memory region to avoid the need to regenerate instrumented blocks on each +fork. + +Whilst FRIDA allows for a normal C function to be used to augment instrumented +code, to minimize the costs of storing and restoring all of the registers, FRIDA +mode instead makes use of optimized assembly instead on AARCH64 and x86/64 +targets. + +# Advanced configuration options +* `AFL_FRIDA_INST_NO_OPTIMIZE` - Don't use optimized inline assembly coverage +instrumentation (the default where available). Required to use +`AFL_FRIDA_INST_TRACE`. +* `AFL_FRIDA_INST_NO_PREFETCH` - Disable prefetching. By default the child will +report instrumented blocks back to the parent so that it can also instrument +them and they be inherited by the next child on fork. +* `AFL_FRIDA_INST_STRICT` - Under certain conditions, Stalker may encroach into +excluded regions and generate both instrumented blocks and coverage data (e.g. +indirect calls on x86). The excluded block is generally honoured as soon as +another function is called within the excluded region and so such encroachment +is usually of little consequence. This detail may however, hinder you when +checking that the correct number of paths are found for testing purposes or +similar. There is a performance penatly for this option during block compilation +where we check the block isn't in a list of excluded ranges. +* `AFL_FRIDA_INST_TRACE` - Generate some logging when running instrumented code. +Requires `AFL_FRIDA_INST_NO_OPTIMIZE`. # TODO -* Add AARCH64 inline assembly optimization from libFuzz -* Fix issues running on OSX -* Identify cause of erroneous additional paths +As can be seen from the progress section above, there are a number of features +which are missing in its currently form. Chief amongst which is persistent mode. +The intention is to achieve feature parity with QEMU mode in due course. +Contributions are welcome, but please get in touch to ensure that efforts are +deconflicted. \ No newline at end of file diff --git a/src/afl-analyze.c b/src/afl-analyze.c index 6ff119ac..8e5a1772 100644 --- a/src/afl-analyze.c +++ b/src/afl-analyze.c @@ -842,7 +842,6 @@ static void set_up_environment(char **argv) { } ck_free(frida_binary); - OKF("Frida Mode setting LD_PRELOAD %s", frida_afl_preload); setenv("LD_PRELOAD", frida_afl_preload, 1); setenv("DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES", frida_afl_preload, 1); @@ -859,7 +858,6 @@ static void set_up_environment(char **argv) { u8 *frida_binary = find_afl_binary(argv[0], "afl-frida-trace.so"); setenv("LD_PRELOAD", frida_binary, 1); setenv("DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES", frida_binary, 1); - OKF("Frida Mode setting LD_PRELOAD %s", frida_binary); ck_free(frida_binary); } diff --git a/src/afl-fuzz.c b/src/afl-fuzz.c index 34e9d420..ba8feb53 100644 --- a/src/afl-fuzz.c +++ b/src/afl-fuzz.c @@ -1320,7 +1320,6 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv_orig, char **envp) { } ck_free(frida_binary); - OKF("Frida Mode setting LD_PRELOAD %s", frida_afl_preload); setenv("LD_PRELOAD", frida_afl_preload, 1); setenv("DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES", frida_afl_preload, 1); @@ -1337,7 +1336,6 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv_orig, char **envp) { u8 *frida_binary = find_afl_binary(argv[0], "afl-frida-trace.so"); setenv("LD_PRELOAD", frida_binary, 1); setenv("DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES", frida_binary, 1); - OKF("Frida Mode setting LD_PRELOAD %s", frida_binary); ck_free(frida_binary); } diff --git a/src/afl-showmap.c b/src/afl-showmap.c index aea90b3b..38d03d80 100644 --- a/src/afl-showmap.c +++ b/src/afl-showmap.c @@ -617,7 +617,6 @@ static void set_up_environment(afl_forkserver_t *fsrv, char **argv) { } ck_free(frida_binary); - OKF("Frida Mode setting LD_PRELOAD %s", frida_afl_preload); setenv("LD_PRELOAD", frida_afl_preload, 1); setenv("DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES", frida_afl_preload, 1); @@ -634,7 +633,6 @@ static void set_up_environment(afl_forkserver_t *fsrv, char **argv) { u8 *frida_binary = find_afl_binary(argv[0], "afl-frida-trace.so"); setenv("LD_PRELOAD", frida_binary, 1); setenv("DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES", frida_binary, 1); - OKF("Frida Mode setting LD_PRELOAD %s", frida_binary); ck_free(frida_binary); } @@ -996,7 +994,6 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv_orig, char **envp) { } - if (in_dir) { /* If we don't have a file name chosen yet, use a safe default. */ diff --git a/src/afl-tmin.c b/src/afl-tmin.c index 68e61109..bad5d71b 100644 --- a/src/afl-tmin.c +++ b/src/afl-tmin.c @@ -772,7 +772,6 @@ static void set_up_environment(afl_forkserver_t *fsrv, char **argv) { } ck_free(frida_binary); - OKF("Frida Mode setting LD_PRELOAD %s", frida_afl_preload); setenv("LD_PRELOAD", frida_afl_preload, 1); setenv("DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES", frida_afl_preload, 1); @@ -789,7 +788,6 @@ static void set_up_environment(afl_forkserver_t *fsrv, char **argv) { u8 *frida_binary = find_afl_binary(argv[0], "afl-frida-trace.so"); setenv("LD_PRELOAD", frida_binary, 1); setenv("DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES", frida_binary, 1); - OKF("Frida Mode setting LD_PRELOAD %s", frida_binary); ck_free(frida_binary); } -- cgit 1.4.1 From ccf739f8801c373fe2aa1bb709ffd697cfe2a3e6 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Dominik Maier Date: Mon, 17 May 2021 18:16:41 +0200 Subject: AFL_PRINT_FILENAMES added --- afl-cmin | 2 ++ docs/Changelog.md | 1 + docs/env_variables.md | 3 ++ src/afl-showmap.c | 82 ++++++++++++++++++++++++++++----------------------- 4 files changed, 51 insertions(+), 37 deletions(-) (limited to 'afl-cmin') diff --git a/afl-cmin b/afl-cmin index 3f3a7517..adcbb221 100755 --- a/afl-cmin +++ b/afl-cmin @@ -123,6 +123,8 @@ function usage() { "AFL_KEEP_TRACES: leave the temporary /.traces directory\n" \ "AFL_KILL_SIGNAL: Signal ID delivered to child processes on timeout, etc. (default: SIGKILL)\n" "AFL_PATH: path for the afl-showmap binary if not found anywhere else\n" \ +"AFL_PRINT_FILENAMES: If set, the filename currently processed will be " \ + "printed to stdout\n" \ "AFL_SKIP_BIN_CHECK: skip check for target binary\n" exit 1 } diff --git a/docs/Changelog.md b/docs/Changelog.md index 4fa70bfd..67ab9d5e 100644 --- a/docs/Changelog.md +++ b/docs/Changelog.md @@ -50,6 +50,7 @@ sending a mail to . MacOS shared memory - updated the grammar custom mutator to the newest version - add -d (add dead fuzzer stats) to afl-whatsup + - added AFL_PRINT_FILENAMES to afl-showmap/cmin to print the current filename ### Version ++3.12c (release) - afl-fuzz: diff --git a/docs/env_variables.md b/docs/env_variables.md index 8879db72..99568146 100644 --- a/docs/env_variables.md +++ b/docs/env_variables.md @@ -567,6 +567,9 @@ The corpus minimization script offers very little customization: a modest security risk on multi-user systems with rogue users, but should be safe on dedicated fuzzing boxes. + - `AFL_PRINT_FILENAMES` prints each filename to stdout, as it gets processed. + This can help when embedding `afl-cmin` or `afl-showmap` in other scripts scripting. + ## 7) Settings for afl-tmin Virtually nothing to play with. Well, in QEMU mode (`-Q`), `AFL_PATH` will be diff --git a/src/afl-showmap.c b/src/afl-showmap.c index 41a62108..336ac126 100644 --- a/src/afl-showmap.c +++ b/src/afl-showmap.c @@ -76,17 +76,18 @@ static u32 in_len; /* Input data length */ static u32 map_size = MAP_SIZE; -static u8 quiet_mode, /* Hide non-essential messages? */ +static bool quiet_mode, /* Hide non-essential messages? */ edges_only, /* Ignore hit counts? */ raw_instr_output, /* Do not apply AFL filters */ cmin_mode, /* Generate output in afl-cmin mode? */ binary_mode, /* Write output as a binary map */ keep_cores, /* Allow coredumps? */ - remove_shm = 1, /* remove shmem? */ + remove_shm = true, /* remove shmem? */ collect_coverage, /* collect coverage */ have_coverage, /* have coverage? */ no_classify, /* do not classify counts */ - debug; /* debug mode */ + debug, /* debug mode */ + print_filenames; /* print the current filename */ static volatile u8 stop_soon, /* Ctrl-C pressed? */ child_crashed; /* Child crashed? */ @@ -320,11 +321,11 @@ static void showmap_run_target_forkserver(afl_forkserver_t *fsrv, u8 *mem, if (fsrv->trace_bits[0] == 1) { fsrv->trace_bits[0] = 0; - have_coverage = 1; + have_coverage = true; } else { - have_coverage = 0; + have_coverage = false; } @@ -335,11 +336,11 @@ static void showmap_run_target_forkserver(afl_forkserver_t *fsrv, u8 *mem, if (!fsrv->last_run_timed_out && !stop_soon && WIFSIGNALED(fsrv->child_status)) { - child_crashed = 1; + child_crashed = true; } else { - child_crashed = 0; + child_crashed = false; } @@ -375,6 +376,8 @@ static void showmap_run_target_forkserver(afl_forkserver_t *fsrv, u8 *mem, static u32 read_file(u8 *in_file) { + if (print_filenames) { SAYF("Processing %s\n", in_file); } + struct stat st; s32 fd = open(in_file, O_RDONLY); @@ -515,11 +518,11 @@ static void showmap_run_target(afl_forkserver_t *fsrv, char **argv) { if (fsrv->trace_bits[0] == 1) { fsrv->trace_bits[0] = 0; - have_coverage = 1; + have_coverage = true; } else { - have_coverage = 0; + have_coverage = false; } @@ -529,7 +532,7 @@ static void showmap_run_target(afl_forkserver_t *fsrv, char **argv) { if (!fsrv->last_run_timed_out && !stop_soon && WIFSIGNALED(status)) { - child_crashed = 1; + child_crashed = true; } @@ -559,7 +562,7 @@ static void showmap_run_target(afl_forkserver_t *fsrv, char **argv) { static void handle_stop_sig(int sig) { (void)sig; - stop_soon = 1; + stop_soon = true; afl_fsrv_killall(); } @@ -742,6 +745,8 @@ static void usage(u8 *argv0) { "AFL_MAP_SIZE: the shared memory size for that target. must be >= the " "size the target was compiled for\n" "AFL_PRELOAD: LD_PRELOAD / DYLD_INSERT_LIBRARIES settings for target\n" + "AFL_PRINT_FILENAMES: If set, the filename currently processed will be " + "printed to stdout\n" "AFL_QUIET: do not print extra informational output\n", argv0, MEM_LIMIT, doc_path); @@ -755,14 +760,17 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv_orig, char **envp) { // TODO: u64 mem_limit = MEM_LIMIT; /* Memory limit (MB) */ - s32 opt, i; - u8 mem_limit_given = 0, timeout_given = 0, unicorn_mode = 0, use_wine = 0; + s32 opt, i; + bool mem_limit_given = false, timeout_given = false, unicorn_mode = false, + use_wine = false; char **use_argv; char **argv = argv_cpy_dup(argc, argv_orig); afl_forkserver_t fsrv_var = {0}; - if (getenv("AFL_DEBUG")) { debug = 1; } + if (getenv("AFL_DEBUG")) { debug = true; } + if (getenv("AFL_PRINT_FILENAMES")) { print_filenames = true; } + fsrv = &fsrv_var; afl_fsrv_init(fsrv); map_size = get_map_size(); @@ -770,19 +778,19 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv_orig, char **envp) { doc_path = access(DOC_PATH, F_OK) ? "docs" : DOC_PATH; - if (getenv("AFL_QUIET") != NULL) { be_quiet = 1; } + if (getenv("AFL_QUIET") != NULL) { be_quiet = true; } while ((opt = getopt(argc, argv, "+i:o:f:m:t:A:eqCZOQUWbcrsh")) > 0) { switch (opt) { case 's': - no_classify = 1; + no_classify = true; break; case 'C': - collect_coverage = 1; - quiet_mode = 1; + collect_coverage = true; + quiet_mode = true; break; case 'i': @@ -801,7 +809,7 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv_orig, char **envp) { u8 suffix = 'M'; if (mem_limit_given) { FATAL("Multiple -m options not supported"); } - mem_limit_given = 1; + mem_limit_given = true; if (!optarg) { FATAL("Wrong usage of -m"); } @@ -862,7 +870,7 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv_orig, char **envp) { case 't': if (timeout_given) { FATAL("Multiple -t options not supported"); } - timeout_given = 1; + timeout_given = true; if (!optarg) { FATAL("Wrong usage of -t"); } @@ -884,12 +892,12 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv_orig, char **envp) { if (edges_only) { FATAL("Multiple -e options not supported"); } if (raw_instr_output) { FATAL("-e and -r are mutually exclusive"); } - edges_only = 1; + edges_only = true; break; case 'q': - quiet_mode = 1; + quiet_mode = true; break; case 'Z': @@ -897,8 +905,8 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv_orig, char **envp) { /* This is an undocumented option to write data in the syntax expected by afl-cmin. Nobody else should have any use for this. */ - cmin_mode = 1; - quiet_mode = 1; + cmin_mode = true; + quiet_mode = true; break; case 'A': @@ -910,7 +918,7 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv_orig, char **envp) { if (fsrv->frida_mode) { FATAL("Multiple -O options not supported"); } - fsrv->frida_mode = 1; + fsrv->frida_mode = true; break; @@ -918,21 +926,21 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv_orig, char **envp) { if (fsrv->qemu_mode) { FATAL("Multiple -Q options not supported"); } - fsrv->qemu_mode = 1; + fsrv->qemu_mode = true; break; case 'U': if (unicorn_mode) { FATAL("Multiple -U options not supported"); } - unicorn_mode = 1; + unicorn_mode = true; break; case 'W': /* Wine+QEMU mode */ if (use_wine) { FATAL("Multiple -W options not supported"); } - fsrv->qemu_mode = 1; - use_wine = 1; + fsrv->qemu_mode = true; + use_wine = true; break; @@ -941,20 +949,20 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv_orig, char **envp) { /* Secret undocumented mode. Writes output in raw binary format similar to that dumped by afl-fuzz in cmplog_mode = 0; u8 *map = afl_shm_init(shm_fuzz, MAX_FILE + sizeof(u32), 1); - shm_fuzz->shmemfuzz_mode = 1; + shm_fuzz->shmemfuzz_mode = true; if (!map) { FATAL("BUG: Zero return from afl_shm_init."); } #ifdef USEMMAP setenv(SHM_FUZZ_ENV_VAR, shm_fuzz->g_shm_file_path, 1); @@ -1073,7 +1081,7 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv_orig, char **envp) { setenv(SHM_FUZZ_ENV_VAR, shm_str, 1); ck_free(shm_str); #endif - fsrv->support_shmem_fuzz = 1; + fsrv->support_shmem_fuzz = true; fsrv->shmem_fuzz_len = (u32 *)map; fsrv->shmem_fuzz = map + sizeof(u32); @@ -1125,7 +1133,7 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv_orig, char **envp) { struct stat statbuf; #endif - if (getenv("AFL_DEBUG_GDB")) wait_for_gdb = 1; + if (getenv("AFL_DEBUG_GDB")) wait_for_gdb = true; fsrv->dev_null_fd = open("/dev/null", O_RDWR); if (fsrv->dev_null_fd < 0) { PFATAL("Unable to open /dev/null"); } @@ -1164,8 +1172,8 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv_orig, char **envp) { if ((coverage_map = (u8 *)malloc(map_size)) == NULL) FATAL("coult not grab memory"); - edges_only = 0; - raw_instr_output = 1; + edges_only = false; + raw_instr_output = true; } -- cgit 1.4.1 From d2e85cce5048f36aef27a26d907670dda61837e4 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: vanhauser-thc Date: Sun, 30 May 2021 00:36:56 +0200 Subject: afl-cmin help fix, aflpp_driver - + @@ support --- afl-cmin | 8 ++--- frida_mode/src/instrument/instrument_debug.c | 1 - utils/aflpp_driver/README.md | 6 ++++ utils/aflpp_driver/aflpp_driver.c | 44 +++++++++++++++++++++------- 4 files changed, 44 insertions(+), 15 deletions(-) (limited to 'afl-cmin') diff --git a/afl-cmin b/afl-cmin index adcbb221..9fa63ec6 100755 --- a/afl-cmin +++ b/afl-cmin @@ -119,13 +119,13 @@ function usage() { "Environment variables used:\n" \ "AFL_ALLOW_TMP: allow unsafe use of input/output directories under {/var}/tmp\n" \ "AFL_CRASH_EXITCODE: optional child exit code to be interpreted as crash\n" \ -"AFL_FORKSRV_INIT_TMOUT: time the fuzzer waits for the target to come up, initially\n" \ +"AFL_FORKSRV_INIT_TMOUT: time the fuzzer waits for the forkserver to come up\n" \ "AFL_KEEP_TRACES: leave the temporary /.traces directory\n" \ -"AFL_KILL_SIGNAL: Signal ID delivered to child processes on timeout, etc. (default: SIGKILL)\n" -"AFL_PATH: path for the afl-showmap binary if not found anywhere else\n" \ +"AFL_KILL_SIGNAL: Signal delivered to child processes on timeout (default: SIGKILL)\n" \ +"AFL_PATH: path for the afl-showmap binary if not found anywhere in PATH\n" \ "AFL_PRINT_FILENAMES: If set, the filename currently processed will be " \ "printed to stdout\n" \ -"AFL_SKIP_BIN_CHECK: skip check for target binary\n" +"AFL_SKIP_BIN_CHECK: skip afl instrumentation checks for target binary\n" exit 1 } diff --git a/frida_mode/src/instrument/instrument_debug.c b/frida_mode/src/instrument/instrument_debug.c index 124843d8..be72ef89 100644 --- a/frida_mode/src/instrument/instrument_debug.c +++ b/frida_mode/src/instrument/instrument_debug.c @@ -20,7 +20,6 @@ static void instrument_debug(char *format, ...) { int len; va_start(ap, format); - ret = vsnprintf(buffer, sizeof(buffer) - 1, format, ap); va_end(ap); diff --git a/utils/aflpp_driver/README.md b/utils/aflpp_driver/README.md index 01bd10c0..f03c2fe3 100644 --- a/utils/aflpp_driver/README.md +++ b/utils/aflpp_driver/README.md @@ -13,6 +13,12 @@ If this is the clang compile command to build for libfuzzer: then just switch `clang++` with `afl-clang-fast++` and our compiler will magically insert libAFLDriver.a :) +To use shared-memory testcases, you need nothing to do. +To use stdin testcases give `-` as the only command line parameter. +To use file input testcases give `@@` as the only command line parameter. + +IMPORTANT: if you use `afl-cmin` or `afl-cmin.bash` then either pass `-` +or `@@` as command line parameters. ## aflpp_qemu_driver diff --git a/utils/aflpp_driver/aflpp_driver.c b/utils/aflpp_driver/aflpp_driver.c index ad781e64..c094c425 100644 --- a/utils/aflpp_driver/aflpp_driver.c +++ b/utils/aflpp_driver/aflpp_driver.c @@ -174,11 +174,17 @@ size_t LLVMFuzzerMutate(uint8_t *Data, size_t Size, size_t MaxSize) { static int ExecuteFilesOnyByOne(int argc, char **argv) { unsigned char *buf = (unsigned char *)malloc(MAX_FILE); + for (int i = 1; i < argc; i++) { - int fd = open(argv[i], O_RDONLY); - if (fd == -1) continue; + int fd = 0; + + if (strcmp(argv[i], "-") != 0) { fd = open(argv[i], O_RDONLY); } + + if (fd == -1) { continue; } + ssize_t length = read(fd, buf, MAX_FILE); + if (length > 0) { printf("Reading %zu bytes from %s\n", length, argv[i]); @@ -187,7 +193,7 @@ static int ExecuteFilesOnyByOne(int argc, char **argv) { } - close(fd); + if (fd > 0) { close(fd); } } @@ -199,15 +205,19 @@ static int ExecuteFilesOnyByOne(int argc, char **argv) { int main(int argc, char **argv) { printf( - "======================= INFO =========================\n" + "============================== INFO ================================\n" "This binary is built for afl++.\n" + "To use with afl-cmin or afl-cmin.bash pass '-' as single command line " + "option\n" "To run the target function on individual input(s) execute this:\n" " %s INPUT_FILE1 [INPUT_FILE2 ... ]\n" "To fuzz with afl-fuzz execute this:\n" " afl-fuzz [afl-flags] -- %s [-N]\n" "afl-fuzz will run N iterations before re-spawning the process (default: " "INT_MAX)\n" - "======================================================\n", + "For stdin input processing, pass '-' as single command line option.\n" + "For file input processing, pass '@@' as single command line option.\n" + "===================================================================\n", argv[0], argv[0]); if (getenv("AFL_GDB")) { @@ -237,22 +247,35 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv) { memcpy(dummy_input, (void *)AFL_PERSISTENT, sizeof(AFL_PERSISTENT)); memcpy(dummy_input + 32, (void *)AFL_DEFER_FORKSVR, sizeof(AFL_DEFER_FORKSVR)); + int N = INT_MAX; - if (argc == 2 && argv[1][0] == '-') + + if (argc == 2 && !strcmp(argv[1], "-")) { + + __afl_sharedmem_fuzzing = 0; + __afl_manual_init(); + return ExecuteFilesOnyByOne(argc, argv); + + } else if (argc == 2 && argv[1][0] == '-') { + N = atoi(argv[1] + 1); - else if (argc == 2 && (N = atoi(argv[1])) > 0) + + } else if (argc == 2 && (N = atoi(argv[1])) > 0) { + printf("WARNING: using the deprecated call style `%s %d`\n", argv[0], N); - else if (argc > 1) { + + } else if (argc > 1) { __afl_sharedmem_fuzzing = 0; - __afl_manual_init(); + + if (argc == 2) { __afl_manual_init(); } + return ExecuteFilesOnyByOne(argc, argv); } assert(N > 0); - // if (!getenv("AFL_DRIVER_DONT_DEFER")) __afl_manual_init(); // Call LLVMFuzzerTestOneInput here so that coverage caused by initialization @@ -271,6 +294,7 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv) { fprintf(stderr, "%02x", __afl_fuzz_ptr[i]); fprintf(stderr, "\n"); #endif + if (*__afl_fuzz_len) { num_runs++; -- cgit 1.4.1 From c46f8c1f70918056e95c801b1a81f11c79304b05 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: vanhauser-thc Date: Wed, 16 Jun 2021 13:03:42 +0200 Subject: make afl-cmin actually work with subdirectories --- afl-cmin | 42 ++++++++++++++++++-------------- docs/Changelog.md | 4 ++-- instrumentation/afl-compiler-rt.o.c | 2 +- src/afl-showmap.c | 48 +++++++++++++++++++++---------------- 4 files changed, 54 insertions(+), 42 deletions(-) (limited to 'afl-cmin') diff --git a/afl-cmin b/afl-cmin index 9fa63ec6..e71873d3 100755 --- a/afl-cmin +++ b/afl-cmin @@ -296,13 +296,13 @@ BEGIN { exit 1 } - if (0 == system( "test -d "in_dir"/default" )) { - in_dir = in_dir "/default" - } - - if (0 == system( "test -d "in_dir"/queue" )) { - in_dir = in_dir "/queue" - } + #if (0 == system( "test -d "in_dir"/default" )) { + # in_dir = in_dir "/default" + #} + # + #if (0 == system( "test -d "in_dir"/queue" )) { + # in_dir = in_dir "/queue" + #} system("rm -rf "trace_dir" 2>/dev/null"); system("rm "out_dir"/id[:_]* 2>/dev/null") @@ -355,30 +355,35 @@ BEGIN { } else { stat_format = "-f '%z %N'" # *BSD, MacOS } - cmdline = "(cd "in_dir" && find . \\( ! -name . -a -type d -prune \\) -o -type f -exec stat "stat_format" \\{\\} + | sort -k1n -k2r)" + cmdline = "(cd "in_dir" && find . \\( ! -name \".*\" -a -type d \\) -o -type f -exec stat "stat_format" \\{\\} + | sort -k1n -k2r)" #cmdline = "ls "in_dir" | (cd "in_dir" && xargs stat "stat_format" 2>/dev/null) | sort -k1n -k2r" #cmdline = "(cd "in_dir" && stat "stat_format" *) | sort -k1n -k2r" #cmdline = "(cd "in_dir" && ls | xargs stat "stat_format" ) | sort -k1n -k2r" while (cmdline | getline) { sub(/^[0-9]+ (\.\/)?/,"",$0) - infilesSmallToBig[i++] = $0 + infilesSmallToBigFull[i] = $0 + sub(/.*\//, "", $0) + infilesSmallToBig[i] = $0 + infilesSmallToBigMap[infilesSmallToBig[i]] = infilesSmallToBigFull[i] + infilesSmallToBigFullMap[infilesSmallToBigFull[i]] = infilesSmallToBig[i] + i++ } in_count = i - first_file = infilesSmallToBig[0] + first_file = infilesSmallToBigFull[0] - # Make sure that we're not dealing with a directory. - - if (0 == system("test -d ""\""in_dir"/"first_file"\"")) { - print "[-] Error: The input directory is empty or contains subdirectories - please fix." > "/dev/stderr" - exit 1 - } + #if (0 == system("test -d ""\""in_dir"/"first_file"\"")) { + # print "[-] Error: The input directory is empty or contains subdirectories - please fix." > "/dev/stderr" + # exit 1 + #} - if (0 == system("ln \""in_dir"/"first_file"\" "trace_dir"/.link_test")) { + system(">\""in_dir"/.afl-cmin.test\"") + if (0 == system("ln \""in_dir"/.afl-cmin.test\" "trace_dir"/.link_test")) { cp_tool = "ln" } else { cp_tool = "cp" } + system("rm -f \""in_dir"/.afl-cmin.test\"") if (!ENVIRON["AFL_SKIP_BIN_CHECK"]) { # Make sure that we can actually get anything out of afl-showmap before we @@ -511,7 +516,8 @@ BEGIN { # copy file unless already done if (! (fn in file_already_copied)) { - system(cp_tool" \""in_dir"/"fn"\" \""out_dir"/"fn"\"") + realfile = infilesSmallToBigMap[fn] + system(cp_tool" \""in_dir"/"realfile"\" \""out_dir"/"fn"\"") file_already_copied[fn] = "" ++out_count #printf "tuple nr %d (%d cnt=%d) -> %s\n",tcnt,key,key_count[key],fn > trace_dir"/.log" diff --git a/docs/Changelog.md b/docs/Changelog.md index 530dd941..9fd2a1a9 100644 --- a/docs/Changelog.md +++ b/docs/Changelog.md @@ -31,8 +31,8 @@ sending a mail to . - afl_analyze: - fix timeout handling - add forkserver support for better performance - - afl-cmin, afl-cmin.bash and afl-showmap -i do now descend into - subdirectories (like afl-fuzz does) + - afl-cmin and afl-showmap -i do now descend into subdirectories + (like afl-fuzz does) - note that afl-cmin.bash does not! - ensure afl-compiler-rt is built for gcc_module ### Version ++3.13c (release) diff --git a/instrumentation/afl-compiler-rt.o.c b/instrumentation/afl-compiler-rt.o.c index 50117012..404b761f 100644 --- a/instrumentation/afl-compiler-rt.o.c +++ b/instrumentation/afl-compiler-rt.o.c @@ -1019,7 +1019,7 @@ static void __afl_start_forkserver(void) { if (read(FORKSRV_FD, &was_killed, 4) != 4) { - write_error("read from afl-fuzz"); + //write_error("read from afl-fuzz"); _exit(1); } diff --git a/src/afl-showmap.c b/src/afl-showmap.c index 03050d91..646396ad 100644 --- a/src/afl-showmap.c +++ b/src/afl-showmap.c @@ -233,7 +233,11 @@ static u32 write_results_to_file(afl_forkserver_t *fsrv, u8 *outfile) { u8 cco = !!getenv("AFL_CMIN_CRASHES_ONLY"), caa = !!getenv("AFL_CMIN_ALLOW_ANY"); - if (!outfile) { FATAL("Output filename not set (Bug in AFL++?)"); } + if (!outfile || !*outfile) { + + FATAL("Output filename not set (Bug in AFL++?)"); + + } if (cmin_mode && (fsrv->last_run_timed_out || (!caa && child_crashed != cco))) { @@ -753,7 +757,9 @@ u32 execute_testcases(u8 *dir) { } - // DO + if (!collect_coverage) + snprintf(outfile, sizeof(outfile), "%s/%s", out_file, nl[i]->d_name); + if (read_file(fn2)) { if (wait_for_gdb) { @@ -800,31 +806,31 @@ static void usage(u8 *argv0) { "\n%s [ options ] -- /path/to/target_app [ ... ]\n\n" "Required parameters:\n" - " -o file - file to write the trace data to\n\n" + " -o file - file to write the trace data to\n\n" "Execution control settings:\n" - " -t msec - timeout for each run (none)\n" - " -m megs - memory limit for child process (%u MB)\n" - " -O - use binary-only instrumentation (FRIDA mode)\n" - " -Q - use binary-only instrumentation (QEMU mode)\n" - " -U - use Unicorn-based instrumentation (Unicorn mode)\n" - " -W - use qemu-based instrumentation with Wine (Wine mode)\n" - " (Not necessary, here for consistency with other afl-* " + " -t msec - timeout for each run (none)\n" + " -m megs - memory limit for child process (%u MB)\n" + " -O - use binary-only instrumentation (FRIDA mode)\n" + " -Q - use binary-only instrumentation (QEMU mode)\n" + " -U - use Unicorn-based instrumentation (Unicorn mode)\n" + " -W - use qemu-based instrumentation with Wine (Wine mode)\n" + " (Not necessary, here for consistency with other afl-* " "tools)\n\n" "Other settings:\n" - " -i dir - process all files in this directory, must be combined " + " -i dir - process all files below this directory, must be combined " "with -o.\n" - " With -C, -o is a file, without -C it must be a " + " With -C, -o is a file, without -C it must be a " "directory\n" - " and each bitmap will be written there individually.\n" - " -C - collect coverage, writes all edges to -o and gives a " + " and each bitmap will be written there individually.\n" + " -C - collect coverage, writes all edges to -o and gives a " "summary\n" - " Must be combined with -i.\n" - " -q - sink program's output and don't show messages\n" - " -e - show edge coverage only, ignore hit counts\n" - " -r - show real tuple values instead of AFL filter values\n" - " -s - do not classify the map\n" - " -c - allow core dumps\n\n" + " Must be combined with -i.\n" + " -q - sink program's output and don't show messages\n" + " -e - show edge coverage only, ignore hit counts\n" + " -r - show real tuple values instead of AFL filter values\n" + " -s - do not classify the map\n" + " -c - allow core dumps\n\n" "This tool displays raw tuple data captured by AFL instrumentation.\n" "For additional help, consult %s/README.md.\n\n" @@ -1259,7 +1265,7 @@ int main(int argc, char **argv_orig, char **envp) { } else { - if ((coverage_map = (u8 *)malloc(map_size)) == NULL) + if ((coverage_map = (u8 *)malloc(map_size + 64)) == NULL) FATAL("coult not grab memory"); edges_only = false; raw_instr_output = true; -- cgit 1.4.1 From b6a9e54c60e98e5c27404253295ce06648bcbd18 Mon Sep 17 00:00:00 2001 From: Dominik Maier Date: Tue, 13 Jul 2021 11:03:30 +0200 Subject: Added more AFL_NO_FORKSRV docu, changelog --- afl-cmin | 1 + afl-cmin.bash | 1 + docs/Changelog.md | 2 ++ 3 files changed, 4 insertions(+) (limited to 'afl-cmin') diff --git a/afl-cmin b/afl-cmin index e71873d3..e6f8c175 100755 --- a/afl-cmin +++ b/afl-cmin @@ -122,6 +122,7 @@ function usage() { "AFL_FORKSRV_INIT_TMOUT: time the fuzzer waits for the forkserver to come up\n" \ "AFL_KEEP_TRACES: leave the temporary /.traces directory\n" \ "AFL_KILL_SIGNAL: Signal delivered to child processes on timeout (default: SIGKILL)\n" \ +"AFL_NO_FORKSRV: run target via execve instead of using the forkserver\n" \ "AFL_PATH: path for the afl-showmap binary if not found anywhere in PATH\n" \ "AFL_PRINT_FILENAMES: If set, the filename currently processed will be " \ "printed to stdout\n" \ diff --git a/afl-cmin.bash b/afl-cmin.bash index f4bd269d..c77dfbc1 100755 --- a/afl-cmin.bash +++ b/afl-cmin.bash @@ -135,6 +135,7 @@ For additional tips, please consult README.md. Environment variables used: AFL_KEEP_TRACES: leave the temporary \.traces directory +AFL_NO_FORKSRV: run target via execve instead of using the forkserver AFL_PATH: last resort location to find the afl-showmap binary AFL_SKIP_BIN_CHECK: skip check for target binary _EOF_ diff --git a/docs/Changelog.md b/docs/Changelog.md index c3e4b34e..aebd3fa9 100644 --- a/docs/Changelog.md +++ b/docs/Changelog.md @@ -36,6 +36,8 @@ sending a mail to . - fix timeout handling - add forkserver support for better performance - ensure afl-compiler-rt is built for gcc_module + - added `AFL_NO_FORKSRV` env variable support to + afl-cmin, afl-tmin, and afl-showmap, by @jhertz ### Version ++3.13c (release) - Note: plot_data switched to relative time from unix time in 3.10 -- cgit 1.4.1